Climate-smart agriculture: adaptation, mitigation and productivity in Çukurova and Thessaly
The Mediterranean basin is one of the regions where the impact of climate change on farming is most intensely debated. Drought, heatwave and flood risks and farm-level responses are covered in detail in the platform's climate adaptation guide. This article focuses on a narrower question: what is FAO's “climate-smart agriculture” approach, and which of its pillars do smart farming tools support, and how?
Three pillars: productivity, adaptation, mitigation
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA), presented by FAO at the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change in 2010, rests on three pillars: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions where possible (FAO, 2013). FAO's sourcebook describes the approach not as a ready-made list of technologies but as a framework that brings together technical, policy and investment conditions according to local circumstances. It recalls that synthetic fertiliser production is energy-intensive and that fertiliser applied in the field causes nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, and it lists precision farming among the ways to improve fertiliser efficiency (FAO, 2013).
The Mediterranean risk picture, briefly
According to the IPCC's Mediterranean assessment, annual and summer warming in the region are projected to be 20% and 50% larger, respectively, than the global annual average. Irrigation needs could increase by 25% in the northern and two-fold in the south-eastern Mediterranean, and the assessment names Thessaly as a region under water stress that draws most of its irrigation water from groundwater (IPCC, 2022). The European Environment Agency's (EEA) 2024 European Climate Risk Assessment states that risks from heat and drought to crop production are already at a critical level in southern Europe (EEA, 2024). On the Turkish side, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry's Agricultural Drought Strategy and Action Plan 2023-2027 counts the Mediterranean Basin among the regions most affected by these changes and notes marked expected decreases in precipitation along the Taurus Mountains, especially in winter (Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2023).
Which pillar do the tools support?
The table below summarises common tools against the three pillars. The figures are findings of specific studies; the same result should not be expected on every farm.
| Tool | Contribution | Finding in the source |
|---|---|---|
| Improved irrigation techniques, irrigation management with remote sensing | Adaptation, productivity | The Mediterranean region could save 35% of water resources through improved irrigation techniques (IPCC, 2022) |
| Variable-rate nitrogen application | Mitigation, productivity | Users reported on average 8% less nitrogen fertiliser and 4.1% higher yield (JRC, 2019) |
| Machine guidance with satellite positioning | Mitigation | Users reported on average 5.4% less fuel (JRC, 2019) |
| Orchard and vineyard spraying that detects tree size and architecture | Input reduction | Up to 20-30% less pesticide and 50-80% less sprayed area (STOA, 2016) |
| Soil moisture monitoring network and provincial early warning systems | Adaptation | The Ministry plan foresees expanding stations that measure soil moisture for early warning, and notes that satellite data cannot give definite results without ground measurements (Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2023) |
The JRC study sees the greatest mitigation potential in variable-rate fertilisation, machine guidance, variable-rate irrigation and controlled traffic farming. According to the report, variable-rate nitrogen has the larger effect because less fertiliser lowers both N2O emissions in the field and CO2 emissions from fertiliser production; the mitigation potential of the two technologies corresponds to 1.5% and 0.3%, respectively, of the EU's 2015 agricultural emissions (JRC, 2019).
What does this mean for Çukurova?
The Ministry's drought plan states that risk in irrigated farming can be minimised by choosing suitable crops and spreading modern pressurised irrigation, above all drip irrigation, and it sees controlled rather than full use of groundwater as the safeguard for dry years (Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2023). The IPCC adds a warning: maladaptive drip irrigation subsidies can lead to unsustainable groundwater use and excessive intensification, which calls for careful strategic planning, regulation and monitoring (IPCC, 2022). In other words, if water saved through sensors or drip irrigation is used to irrigate new land, the adaptation gain at basin level can be lost.
For a citrus grower in Kozan, a climate-smart package follows from a few questions: how much water and nitrogen are used per decare each year, how do these values change between dry and wet years, and what is the irrigation decision based on? The other adaptation options listed by the IPCC, namely mulching and reduced tillage to increase soil water retention, crop diversification, adapting the crop calendar and new varieties suited to changing conditions, should be considered alongside technology (IPCC, 2022). Frost risk and early warning in citrus are covered in a separate guide.
What does this mean for Thessaly?
Greece's CAP Strategic Plan builds this approach directly into its support rules. Farmers in eco-scheme Π1-31.6 use one of the approved digital input management applications, including the FaST (Farm Sustainability Tool) platform for nutrients, and work with an Environmental Management Plan drawn up and monitored by an agronomist. Action 31.6-Θ of the same scheme provides a maximum of EUR 70 per hectare for precision spraying and a maximum of EUR 100 per hectare for precision fertilisation with a variable-rate spreader (YPAAT, 2024).
The call for Farm Improvement Plans published in September 2026 by the Greek Ministry of Rural Development and Food (YPAAT) also sets rules against the “rebound” risk: investments on already irrigated land that upgrade the irrigation system or install integrated precision irrigation solutions are supported only if a potential water saving of at least 20% is estimated ex ante, and where the water body is in less than good status for quantity reasons an actual reduction in water use of at least 10% is also required (YPAAT, 2026). For an irrigating farmer in Larissa, this means that investment in sensors and automation should be planned together with a water-saving calculation.
Getting started: measuring the three pillars
- Adaptation: irrigation water per decare (m³), yield loss in a dry year, what the irrigation decision is based on.
- Mitigation: nitrogen (kg N), fuel (litres) and number of spray passes per decare.
- Productivity: yield and input cost per decare.
A farm that keeps these indicators for a few seasons can see from its own data whether a technology is really “climate-smart”. This is also FAO's core message: the approach delivers when it is adapted to local conditions (FAO, 2013).
Sources
- FAO, 2013. Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook (accessed 29 September 2026)
- IPCC, 2022. Ali, E., Cramer, W. et al. Cross-Chapter Paper 4: Mediterranean Region. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (AR6 WGII) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- EEA, 2024. Europe is not prepared for rapidly growing climate risks (European Climate Risk Assessment, 11 March 2024) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı, 2023. Türkiye Tarımsal Kuraklıkla Mücadele Stratejisi ve Eylem Planı (2023-2027) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- JRC, 2019. Soto, I. et al. The contribution of precision agriculture technologies to farm productivity and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU (JRC112505, doi:10.2760/016263) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- European Parliament STOA, 2016. Precision agriculture and the future of farming in Europe: Scientific Foresight Study (PE 581.892, doi:10.2861/020809) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- ΥΠΑΑΤ, 2024. ΥΑ 3430/2024: 4η τροποποίηση της ΥΑ 2207/2023 για τα οικολογικά προγράμματα Π1-31.1, Π1-31.2, Π1-31.5 και Π1-31.6 του ΣΣ ΚΑΠ 2023-2027 (ΦΕΚ Β΄ 4821/21.08.2024) (accessed 29 September 2026)
- ΥΠΑΑΤ, 2026. Πρόσκληση εκδήλωσης ενδιαφέροντος για τις Παρεμβάσεις Π3-73-2.1, Π3-73-2.2 και Π3-73-2.6 του ΣΣ ΚΑΠ 2023-2027 (ΑΔΑ: ΡΘΗΟ4653ΠΓ-ΧΙ7), Περιφέρεια Θεσσαλίας (accessed 29 September 2026)