The Internet of Things in agriculture: architecture from sensor to dashboard, and choosing a connection

A sensor in a field is of little use on its own: its readings have to travel over a network, be stored, and be shown in a way that leads to a decision. The Internet of Things (IoT) is the name for that chain. A 2019 joint publication by FAO and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) notes that sensors in fields are providing ever more granular data and that growing use of IoT will add further to this data deluge (FAO and ITU, 2019). This guide walks through the links in the chain and the options for each. Types and placement of soil moisture sensors are covered in a separate guide on this platform.

Four layers

ITU Recommendation Y.2060 defines the IoT reference model in four layers: the device layer, the network layer, the service support and application support layer, and the application layer, with management and security capabilities spanning all four. A gateway in the device layer can bridge two different protocols, for example ZigBee on the device side and a cellular protocol on the network side (ITU, 2012). In farming, the layers look like this:

• Device: the sensor node that takes measurements (sensor, a small processor, radio, battery or solar panel) and the gateway that collects data from the nodes.
• Network: the Wi-Fi, Ethernet or cellular link that connects the gateway, or the node itself, to the internet.
• Service support: the server or cloud where data are collected, stored and processed.
• Application: the dashboard the grower sees, the alert that arrives when a threshold is crossed, the irrigation or spray decision.

Connection options

A 2024 comparison by South Dakota State University Extension (SDSU Extension) points out that range, power consumption and data rate are linked in wireless technologies: increasing range may require more power, a lower data rate, or both. The values given in the source (feet and miles rounded to metric):

The same source recommends Wi-Fi or Bluetooth for mains-powered devices in small buildings such as greenhouses, and BLE or ZigBee for battery-powered ones; low-power wide-area networks (LPWAN) such as LoRa for battery-powered devices in crop fields, pasture and feedlots that send data infrequently; and Wi-Fi or LTE for live video. LTE-M may be enough for photos or short low-resolution clips. LTE requires a monthly subscription; battery-powered LPWAN devices can run for up to 10 years, and a private LoRaWAN gateway costs 200-800 US dollars at US prices (SDSU Extension, 2024).

LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN is a low-power wide-area protocol optimised for battery-powered end devices, fixed or mobile, which ITU adopted as Recommendation Y.4480 in 2021 (ITU, 2021). According to North Dakota State University (NDSU) Extension, LoRaWAN uses a licence-free radio frequency and can transmit up to 5 miles (about 8 km) in rural areas. A gateway can be powered from the mains or from a 12-volt battery; if a battery is used, a solar charger is needed. The gateway reaches the internet over Wi-Fi, Ethernet or a cellular link; because cellular has subscription costs, it is used only when no direct connection is available. The publication lists rainfall, soil moisture, temperature, stock tank water level and livestock location as example applications (NDSU, 2026).

NB-IoT and LTE-M

NB-IoT and LTE-M are cellular technologies developed for the Internet of Things by 3GPP, the body that develops mobile communication standards, in its Release 13. NB-IoT can operate in a bandwidth as narrow as 200 kHz, stand-alone, within an LTE carrier or in an LTE carrier's guard band (3GPP, 2017). In practice, no separate gateway is needed, but each device needs an operator subscription (SDSU Extension, 2024), and the service works only where the operator offers it. A sensible first step before installation is to ask the operator to confirm coverage at your parcel locations.

Energy

Battery life usually sets the lifetime of a field node. According to the SDSU comparison, greater range may require more power, and LPWAN solutions that send data infrequently are recommended for battery-powered devices, which can then run for up to 10 years (SDSU Extension, 2024). Connections that draw power in the watt range, such as Wi-Fi and 4G, need a continuous supply: mains, or a solar panel with a battery. Where there is no mains supply, a LoRaWAN gateway also runs on a battery with a solar charger (NDSU, 2026).

Which set-up for which measurement?

The station siting figures come from the University of Florida farm weather station guide, which also recommends placing the temperature sensor at least 4 times the height of obstructions and at least 30 m from large paved areas away, and the wind sensor at 2 m height and at least 10 times the obstruction height away (UF/IFAS, 2015).

Not every measurement needs a sensor in the field. IRMA_SYS from Greece, featured in the 2021 FAO and ITU stocktaking report of good practices in Europe and Central Asia, is described in its submission as an open-source, web-based irrigation decision support system built on FAO methodology; it computes a daily water balance without sensors in each field, using agrometeorological data from public services together with soil, crop and irrigation information entered by the farmer or adviser (ITU and FAO, 2021). If a nearby public station represents your parcel well enough, starting with its data and putting your own sensor where uncertainty is greatest can cut costs. Frost early warning in citrus and crop monitoring with Sentinel-2 NDVI are covered in separate guides on this platform.

Five questions before you install

1. Which decision am I measuring for, and how often does that decision need data?
2. What is the longest distance between my parcels, and are there hills, buildings or tree lines in between?
3. Is there NB-IoT or LTE-M coverage here, or will I set up my own LoRaWAN gateway?
4. Is there mains power for the gateway and station, or will I need a solar panel and battery?
5. On which server will the data sit, and how will I get at it? The guide "Setting up an IoT system" covers this in detail.

Sources

1. FAO and ITU, 2019. E-agriculture in Action: Big Data for Agriculture. Bangkok (accessed 29 September 2026)
2. ITU and FAO, 2021. Digital Excellence in Agriculture in Europe and Central Asia: Good practices in the field of digital agriculture, Stocktaking Report (accessed 29 September 2026)
3. ITU-T, 2012. Recommendation Y.2060 (Y.4000): Overview of the Internet of things (accessed 29 September 2026)
4. ITU-T, 2021. Recommendation Y.4480: Low power protocol for wide area wireless networks (accessed 29 September 2026)
5. 3GPP, Liberg, O., 2017. The Cellular Internet of Things (accessed 29 September 2026)
6. Yang, X. et al., South Dakota State University Extension, 2024. Choosing the Right Wireless Network Technologies for Agricultural Internet-of-Things Applications (accessed 29 September 2026)
7. Proulx, R., NDSU Extension, 2026 (reviewed). Basics of LoRa Technology for Crop and Livestock Management (AE1999) (accessed 29 September 2026)
8. Fraisse, C. W. et al., UF/IFAS Extension, 2015 (updated 2018). Your Farm Weather Station: Installation and Maintenance Guidelines (AE502) (accessed 29 September 2026)